1. Environmental Protection
Slow transitions in transportation aspirations are occurring in a market plagued by environmental malice and decades of habit. Current environmental concerns may begin to dominate expectations and increase prospects for a long-term sustainable future.
1.1: Context of environmental implications
The detrimental impacts of early carbon intensive fuel consumption were not truly comprehended until the harmful effects of poor air quality began to be observed. The United States enacted a series of pollution reforms to address air quality on a national level. The Clean Air Act of 1963 (1963 CAA) was the first legislation of its kind regarding the control of air pollution. It authorized research techniques for the monitoring, and minimization of air pollution related to environmental problems. The Clean Air Act of 1967 (1967 CAA) offered an extension to the previous act, authorized enforcement procedures, and expanded on federal government’s research activities. The Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) established a number of air standards, increased enforcement authority, and authorized control of motor vehicle emission requirements. The establishment of this legislation coincides with the creation of the National Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has became a large oversight agency. Amendments to the 1970 Clean Air Act, in 1977 (1977 CAAA) and 1990 (1990 CAAA), were more realist attempts at controlling motor vehicle emissions, toxins harmful to the ozone (189 toxins), and air quality standards. The enforcement of theses acts and related amendments have contributed to the improvement in air quality despite an increase in population, energy consumption, and miles traveled on a national level (table 1.1.1).
Comparison of Growth Areas and Emissions, 1980-2013
Slow transitions in transportation aspirations are occurring in a market plagued by environmental malice and decades of habit. Current environmental concerns may begin to dominate expectations and increase prospects for a long-term sustainable future.
1.1: Context of environmental implications
The detrimental impacts of early carbon intensive fuel consumption were not truly comprehended until the harmful effects of poor air quality began to be observed. The United States enacted a series of pollution reforms to address air quality on a national level. The Clean Air Act of 1963 (1963 CAA) was the first legislation of its kind regarding the control of air pollution. It authorized research techniques for the monitoring, and minimization of air pollution related to environmental problems. The Clean Air Act of 1967 (1967 CAA) offered an extension to the previous act, authorized enforcement procedures, and expanded on federal government’s research activities. The Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) established a number of air standards, increased enforcement authority, and authorized control of motor vehicle emission requirements. The establishment of this legislation coincides with the creation of the National Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has became a large oversight agency. Amendments to the 1970 Clean Air Act, in 1977 (1977 CAAA) and 1990 (1990 CAAA), were more realist attempts at controlling motor vehicle emissions, toxins harmful to the ozone (189 toxins), and air quality standards. The enforcement of theses acts and related amendments have contributed to the improvement in air quality despite an increase in population, energy consumption, and miles traveled on a national level (table 1.1.1).
Comparison of Growth Areas and Emissions, 1980-2013
1.2: Insufficient environmental actions
The United States failed to make the necessary modifications to mitigate the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. Earlier attempts at reducing the harmful effects of greenhouse gas emissions where made on a global level in the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol set out on the mission to establish emission-reduction targets for each participating country, and to create an emission-trading program. Neither of the plans were successful, the US didn’t comply with regulatory provisions, and the protocol failed to include developing countries; such as China and India – the new major contributors.
None of the previous Clean Air Acts required the EPA to regulate CO2 emission and other greenhouse gases (GHG) specifically, but the vague wording of the legislations was intended to encompass as many pollutants as possible. In the case of Massachusetts vs. EPA, a 5-4 vote in favor of Massachusetts, ruled in 2007 that the EPA is responsible for the regulation of greenhouse gases, under the Clean Air Act, as they do contribute to climate change. This ruling brought attention to the relationship between greenhouse gases, its effects on human health, and climate change.
1.3: Link to climate change
The top three greenhouse gasses associated with the burning of fossil fuels and that contribute to the human involvement in climate change are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (NO) (chart 1.3.1 a-c). Of the three greenhouse gases carbon dioxide is the most prevalent in the transportation industry, and accounted for approximately 82% of the CO2 that was emitted in 2013 from human activity. It’s also known to stay in the atmosphere for the longest amount of time (chart 1.3.3). Naturally present in the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is part of the Earth’s natural carbon cycle that circulates carbon from the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals. But, it is the excessive amount of human added carbon dioxide that interferes with the natural progression and unintentional alterations to the cycle; the carbon cycle becomes unable to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with the use of natural sinks, like forest and oceans.
The United States failed to make the necessary modifications to mitigate the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. Earlier attempts at reducing the harmful effects of greenhouse gas emissions where made on a global level in the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol set out on the mission to establish emission-reduction targets for each participating country, and to create an emission-trading program. Neither of the plans were successful, the US didn’t comply with regulatory provisions, and the protocol failed to include developing countries; such as China and India – the new major contributors.
None of the previous Clean Air Acts required the EPA to regulate CO2 emission and other greenhouse gases (GHG) specifically, but the vague wording of the legislations was intended to encompass as many pollutants as possible. In the case of Massachusetts vs. EPA, a 5-4 vote in favor of Massachusetts, ruled in 2007 that the EPA is responsible for the regulation of greenhouse gases, under the Clean Air Act, as they do contribute to climate change. This ruling brought attention to the relationship between greenhouse gases, its effects on human health, and climate change.
1.3: Link to climate change
The top three greenhouse gasses associated with the burning of fossil fuels and that contribute to the human involvement in climate change are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (NO) (chart 1.3.1 a-c). Of the three greenhouse gases carbon dioxide is the most prevalent in the transportation industry, and accounted for approximately 82% of the CO2 that was emitted in 2013 from human activity. It’s also known to stay in the atmosphere for the longest amount of time (chart 1.3.3). Naturally present in the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is part of the Earth’s natural carbon cycle that circulates carbon from the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals. But, it is the excessive amount of human added carbon dioxide that interferes with the natural progression and unintentional alterations to the cycle; the carbon cycle becomes unable to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with the use of natural sinks, like forest and oceans.
Methane is the second major greenhouse gas emitted from human activity in the US, and over 60% of the total methane emitted into the atmosphere in 2013. Methane is naturally removed from the atmosphere by processes in soil and chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere. It is also known to have a shorter lifespan in the atmosphere then carbon dioxide, approximately 12 years, but much more effective at trapping radiation. Nitrous oxide, the least of the three, averaged at about 5% of 2013 greenhouse emissions from human activity. Like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide has a nitrogen cycle that naturally removes it from the atmosphere. Before being removed by a sink or destroyed through a chemical reaction, nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for approximately 114 years; still less than CO2.
Note: Comparative amount of greenhouse gases emitted from the transportation sector.
Table 1.3.2 show a comparison between fuels types are the amount of carbon dioxide they emit.
Energy vs. CO2 Emitted
Table 1.3.2 show a comparison between fuels types are the amount of carbon dioxide they emit.
Energy vs. CO2 Emitted
Note: Carbon dioxide is greater than all others combined.
Source: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html
There is a strong link between greenhouse gas emissions and the increase in surface temperature as a side effect of climate change (table 1.3.4 a-b). On a pound comparison with carbon dioxide the impacts of methane on climate change is about 25 times greater over a 100- year period, and the impacts of nitrogen dioxide – nitrogen reacted with water- is almost 300 times greater. Methods for capturing methane and nitrous oxide upon fossil fuel combustion have been more successful than similar attempts made for capturing carbon dioxide.
Source: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html
There is a strong link between greenhouse gas emissions and the increase in surface temperature as a side effect of climate change (table 1.3.4 a-b). On a pound comparison with carbon dioxide the impacts of methane on climate change is about 25 times greater over a 100- year period, and the impacts of nitrogen dioxide – nitrogen reacted with water- is almost 300 times greater. Methods for capturing methane and nitrous oxide upon fossil fuel combustion have been more successful than similar attempts made for capturing carbon dioxide.
Note: The correlation between carbon dioxide emission and atmospheric concentration with surface temperatures; along a similar time frame.
Source (a-b): Time for Change - http://timeforchange.org/CO2-cause-of-global-warming
When greenhouse gases are emitted upon fossil fuel combustion, those gases that are not consumed through natural methods act as a thermal insulator around the Earth preventing the release of heat back into the atmosphere. Figure 1.3.5 shows a schematic of how the process works. Although there are weather variations throughout the year due to natural occurrences and some areas may experience unusual weather patterns; an increase in overall surface temperatures have been recognized and shows a close correlation to the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. A rise in surface temperatures of more then 2 degrees Celsius has been estimated to have devastating effects on the land, animals, marine life, and vegetation.